PSYCHOLOGY OF MEMORY

by Prof Dr. Bilal Semih Bozdemir

PSYCHOLOGY OF MEMORY

According to Alan D. Baddeley opinions In this chapter, we will try to make a description of the most commonly used concepts and techniques of the psychology of memory, in summary. In fact, there is a significant number of studies about the memory psychology, with a large part of which has been developed through the interaction of laboratory analysis performed on patients who have normal memory works and brain damage.

There is a more detailed description in the works of Perkin and Leng (1993) and Baddeley (1997), a broader definition can be found in the forms section of Baddeley (1997) and in The Memory Handbook (Tulving & Creige, 2000). Separation of the Memory into various parts The concept of human memory as a faculty unit, with no long-term memory and short-term memory that represented different systems began to be eroded seriously in the 1960s. The strongest evidence for this distinction is the difference between the two types of neuro-psychological patients. In patients with classic amnesic syndrome, there is always a general problem in learning and remembering verbal or visual materials, and a damage often occur in the temporal bone and in Anat (hippocampus in the brain) (Milner, 1966).

However, they have the short term memory which allows them to repeat a sequence of number series after hearing it even if they previously didn’t know it or the capacity to complete that sequence. Shallice and Warrington (1970) have on the contrary set an example of a deficiency associated with damage in the Perisylvian region located in the left hemisphere of the brain. Such patients are only able to range a limited range of numbers (one or two) into an orderly series, but apparently have short-term memory. It was then clearly demonstrated that memory was a two-component system since the late 1960s.
The following figure shows an effective model accepted at that time (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968) describing the symbol of such a system. Information, which is defined as a part of the detection system of very short-term memory store and is considered to be received from the environment with a limited short-term memory in a series. They argued that the longer this information remains in the tank, the more likely it will be to (there are greater chances for it) be transferred to long-term memory. It is considered that the amnesic patients are experiencing a lack of memory storage in the long-term and short-term memory. Data incoming from the Environment Short-Term Storage (STS) Temporary Memory Control Processes Trial Encoding Decision Correction Strategies Reactions exit Long Term Storage (LTS) Permanent Memory Deposu Records Heard Visual Heard Touched
The Human memory model adopted by Atkinson and Shiffron (1968) Since the early 1970s, the first of the two problems this model discusses about is related to the learning hypothesis.

The evidences assert that keeping an information in the short-term memory cannot guarantee its learning. Much more important is the processing of the information. This was proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972) and specified in the draft of the stages of processing written by them. Remember that the possibility of accepting or remembering later, have been argued to be a direct function of the depth of knowledge progress. So, if the only visual characteristics of a human word, for example, if it is specified that something is higher or lower, that marks a very small learning. If the sound is also considered when deciding word, for example if there is a certain rhyming in the words, you can remember a little more. However, a provision which is located on the best sense of a word follows the recalling or significant progress in a particular sentence or is associated with the experience. Even if the phases of the treatment effect were repeated many times and some explanation were thought about, or even if it is universally considered that possibly word or experience, are progressing experience developing and in a deep direction, linked to a prior knowledge, there is no doubt that, it was just kept much better in mind by making such a superficial analysis.

This cognitive impairment also happen even in the case of patients who lack the memory and has to note the process needed to prevent such a detail, this effect also in the case and this memory comes in the form of a challenge for those interested in the rehabilitation potential findings. In fact, there is an opinion suggesting that it is based on the classic amnesic syndrome disorder which has to be examined, but more in-depth case studies have shown that it is not (for more information refer to: Baddeley, 1997). A second problem about Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model, has been presented by data from patients with short-term memory impairment which has been previously used to demonstrate it. Even if it is severely argued that these patients have previously had short-term and the long-term memory kept separate, Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model suggests that the short term memory is needed and even important in a long term learning process and for many other cognitive activities. In fact, long-term memory disorders in patients with short-term memory appear to be normal and apart from one or two small exceptions, for example, with a change of plans when shopping, lead to very few cognitive problems in the everyday life. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) who has dealt severely with that of the relationship between short-term and long-term memory, have also been involved in this issue.

It is considered that in normal people, learning processes are significantly due to the short term memory, and in many experiments it has been tried to block the short term memory while people were fulfilling other tasks such as reasoning and insight, enabling them to memorize series of numbers. Assuming that the short-term and long-term memory are in interaction, with an increasing in series of numbers that are kept in mind the greater disturbances have occurred. But the effect is far from extremism, and this once again raises doubts over the standard model. Baddeley and Hitch suggested a more complex or sophisticated system called 'working memory' which could leave its place in favor of the short-term memory in order to explain and to highlight the functional importance of cognitive processes. They argued for the model are shown in the following figure. They suggested that the working memory actually includes a supported center split into two complementary systems supporting the execution, those are the attentional and phonological loop controller and a so-called visuospatial sketch.

They also suggested that the phonological (or hinged) cycle, includes a reservoir holding signs in memory for two seconds and that there are a combination with lower audition process. This can help to keep some events in the memory by using the lower audio in order to change words in a sentence or conversations or a phonological code but which uses visual stimuli to be expressed. It is suggested that a patient suffering from a short-term memory disorder is considered to experience a deficiency in this system, but still a residue of working memory stored somewhere (Val and Baddeley, 1984). The subsequent research studies carried out on short-term memory disorder patients, normal children and adults and on children with specific language problems were based and could be shaped on the phonological loop for the purpose of recovering the language system (Baddeley, 1998). A more detailed explanation about this system and its corruption or wreckage was made by Val and Papagno (2002). Phonological Cycle Central Execution Visuospatial Sketch Baddeley and Hitch’s model of the working memory It is argued that the visuospatial sketch allows temporary records in the memory, visual and spatial information processing. Its function occurring can be prevented at the same time by visuospatial activity, neuro-psychological studies have been carried out on patients as well as on our understanding of these issues with the phonological loop. More precisely, it has been shown that there are different visual and spatial components that can be prevented differentially.

A more detailed description of this system and neuro-psychological evidence were given by Della Sala and Logie (2002). The third component of this model which the central execution is considered to provide a control system based on consideration for other activities and also the working memory subsystems within. Baddeley, Norman and Shallice argued that, there is a supervisory attention system which could be made in cooperation with the center executive in order to explain the fact that movements are based on attention. They suggested that in the good habits and plans we learnt managed by environmental signals are too much controlling our activity. On the other hand, it depends on the intervention of the limited capacity of the unusual movement’s supervisory attention system which must react to unexpected situations.

To ensure responsiveness to new dangers or unusual movements habits have an override capability. One Saturday morning when you plan to go to the supermarket and drive your car accidentally to your office, this bad move or habit is linked to a lack of overriding the attention to the supervisory system. Movement control problems seen in patients with damage to the frontal lobe of the brain are also linked to the lack of the supervisory attention system, so after some time of repetitive activity, may reflect the failure to get rid of supervisory attention system and from the dominant actions performed frequently in that environment. Shallice and others have extended descriptions in a way that includes a cleavable sequence execution potential, so that they could explain a different deficiency in the sequence which can occur in patients with damage to the frontal lobe. (Baddeley, 1996, Duncan, 1996 Shallice and Burgess, 1996). Baddeley and Wilson (1998), in their definitive draft, have suggested that by anatomical location of cognitive function which is very different, the term of "the front lobe syndrome", should be replaced with the term "incomplete execution syndrome" which is more functional. To take a glance at the revised version of this issue please refer to: Roberts (1998), Stuss and Knight (2002).

The frontal lobe function is important in the execution deficiencies in the operation of extraction and storage of the brain because they play a very essential role in the learning processes due to the selection of the operation and the execution of the strategy that they control and impulses. (For more information refer to: Baddeley, 2002, 15th, 16th and 17th chapters). A short time ago, a new concept called the irregular intermediate memory (irregular buffer) has been discovered as the fourth component of the working memory. It has been argued that it provides a multichip temporary store with a limited capacity that can integrate information from complementary system with data from the long-term memory. It has been recognized that this is very important for cluttering or gathering information in the short term memory (Miller, 1956). With the help of our previous knowledge of this process we can achieve advantages of storage in more a more effective manner so that we can perform storage and correction processes. For example, remembering a number similar to years such as 1492 1776 1945 is easier than to remember the sequence of numbers belonging to a series of 12 random numbers. The irregular buffer at the same time is considered to play an important role in the flash memory, the well-preserved intelligence and / or executive capacity, if we provide that normal snapshot intelligence to people with serious amnestic disorders, any part of a book, even if not postponed, the irregular buffer remember much more than the capacity of both the complement systems (Baddeley, Wilson, 2002).

Although it doesn’t actually exist like that, it appears that the irregular buffer represents a single anatomic location, but there is a serious possibility of inclusion in the front part of the brain. For a more detailed explanation, see Baddeley (2000). Long Term Memory In the case of long-term memory, short term memory has been proven to work and divided into separate components. This is the clearest difference or distinction between the memory opened with great probability (reporting) and the indirect memory (non-reporting). The importance of neuro-psychology has once again been proven. It is known that people with severe amnesic disorders can learn certain things since many years and still recall them, for example, the Swiss psychiatrist Claparède (1911) noticed that a patient shook his hands one morning before he injected him a medicine with a needle and the next day without being able to remember why, but that same patient refused to shake his hands. This has also proven motor skills can be gained in patients (Cork, 1968). But probably the most influential work was the one performed by Warrington and Weiskrantz (1968) on people who are severely amnesic patients. By applying the necessary testing procedures to some sick people, they eventually showed that patients have the ability to learn words and pictures.

In the first study they conducted, they asked patients to identify the object or word they repeatedly display them by asking those patients questions. Both patients and control groups showed similar improved levels of detection of objects that have been shown previously to both. In total, this procedure also referred to as priming (operation), showed an in-depth investigations in both normal people and in the majority of patients having neuro-psychological discomfort (to take a look again refer to: Schacter, 1994). In amnesic patients, in order to provide a regulation of the motor skills concepts (Colodny, 1994), to ensure puzzle solving (Brooks and Baddeley, 1976) and complex problem solving (Cohen and Squire, 1980), learning can take place in more types or different categories, the evidences to this were revised by Squire (1992). The first proposition that argued that all of this represents only one kind of memory does not seem possible anymore. Generally the most logical thing is that learning doesn’t require events restating the original information or things that have been learnt, and it is not bound to recalling, it can be attributed to the memory indirectly entered through performance. Depending on the anatomical structures the necessary structures for operations concerning various types of indirect memory to reflect different parts of the brain are observed. Only amnesic patients can experience indirect measurements or may come across as full and normal disturbances vary rather than all of the other patients.

So that’s why Huntington created a model to explain situations when patients faced with problems in motor learning, semantic study considering that people with Alzheimer's disease have a different model. The diverse nature and the contrary anatomical location of the indirect memory system, Papez seriously showed the temporary open memory as a speed in “anat” as connected or combined to the system with the front lobe of the brain. Tulving (1972) divided the open memory into two different systems the irregular and the semantic ones respectively. Irregular term memory allows us to remember trivial details in a way that we believe in a particular event or if we should use Tulving’s own words we can a 'time travel' that corresponds to recalling specific events from the past. A particular event is set to occur in our mind as it probably looked like at the time it happened and by using the content through time and space.

Even if a piece of information is very strange, and also reflects the expectation of an event in many years or conflict with time, we can remember it and we can react as needed. For example, when we hear or discover that someone is dead, despite all our life experience in the world and our reaction immediately changes no matter how hard we try not to make it obvious. We can compare irregular memory or "semantic memory" to our general knowledge about the world for example knowing the meaning of words such as salt, and its meaning in French or knowing its taste. Knowing the society and its workings, we tend to recognize or to know the nature and use of vehicles at the same time and the system used by psychologists until the end of the 1960s is part of the semantic memory system. At this point, efforts of a computer expert to uncover machines that could help him understand a text, has led to realize how much the capacity of the information storage in memory is important. As in other areas of memory, which is essentially the theory in general and particularly the lack of memory was obtained from studies in patients with semantic dementia (see Snowden, 2002). Both meaningless and erratic memory, unlike the indirect memory, are generally considered to consist of explicit memory, the relationship between the two is quite questionable. One point of view, leaving only the general features aside, suggests that many irregular semantic memory are a stack of contextual details not seen (Squire, 1992).

Meanwhile, Tulving argued that all of those are independent from one another. He focused on the actual experience by providing the importance to remember a registered irregular memory (Tulving, 1989). In fact, to influence "remembering" the object compared, or “knowing" what he just he displayed, and the "remembered" objects of irregular short-term depth is sensitive to variables such as the processing shown to affect memory, and knowing a response cannot do this, it is the event of providing consistent and reliable provisions when people remember an object later on about (see: Gardener and Java, 1993). If Tulving's definition is accepted, then the following question arises: "Is there another type of irregular non-public memory?" If we have to express it once again, the lack of a different kind of memory which occurred in recent years in children with a damage to the Anat , especially starting from the study of advanced memory loss, neuro-psychological evidence has begun to focus on these issues (Vargha-Khadem, 2002, Baddeley, 2001).

Such an argument with the re-analysis of previous neuro-psychological data, met with the examination or research carried on animals and nervous system, has established a link between a moving and a semantic and irregular memory as a new area of research (for this issue newly written on some articles, see Baddeley, 2002b). Even though there are serious disputes about its details and contents, the following figure does show what is considered to be reflected overall in long-term memory. Memory Reported (Direct) Non-Reporting (Indirect) * Cases * Skills and Habits * Events * Priming (Operation) * Simple Classical Conditioning * Learning without association of ideas Division/segmentation of the Long-term memory made By Squire Even if you are not interested in topics closely related to memory research you can find one or two other useful topics that will be discussed in the following sections.