PSYCHOLOGY and its VARIOUS FORMS- SUMMARY

by Prof Dr. Bilal Semih Bozdemir

PSYCHOLOGY and its VARIOUS FORMS- SUMMARY


Psychology: it is the science which studies human and animal behaviours, the science studying an individual's behaviour and its underlying causes. Educational Psychology: it is the science which consists of studying how the movement of training and education takes place by the movements of discoveries in development and learning psychology. Developmental Psychology: it investigates human beings’ behaviours from birth until death, it examines the biological and psychological changes observed throughout life. It is the science that examines the behavior of individuals at specific periods and the behaviours they need to learn at this stage. Learning Psychology: the science which investigates how an individual learns and how he could be taught. Schools of Psychology 1. Structuralism Its representative is W. Wundt. -

He has conducted observational (Laboratory) studies. - The human mind is divided into various awareness items. - To solve the Consciousness, the so-called "introspection method" is used. 2. Behaviorism The representatives are Watson, Pavlov and Skinner. - It has rejected the introspective method. - It explains psychology with "observable and measurable" behaviours. - It pays attention not the “why” of a behaviour but to the “how” it is. - It emphasizes on stimulating conditions in the nearby places. 3. Psycho-Analytical Approach (= Psychoanalysis) The representatives are Freud and Erikson. - It takes behaviours under the angle of "unconscious" events (biological factors). - Human beings acts under the influence of two fundamental instincts. - During the formation of the personality and the analysis of events "childhood experiences (0-6)" and the attitude of parents is important in this period. - According to Erikson in the formation of personality and its development, social environment alongside with biological agents (social factors) are important. - According to Erikson, there is in each period, a conflict (crisis) stages that should be overcome. - Development of the individual lasts a lifetime.

4. Cognitive Approach The representatives of this school are Gestalt, Piaget, Bruner and Ausubel. - They look at the "holistic" individuals and their behaviours. - Behaviours are dealt within a mental process they give place to processes, such as grip attention, perception, and thinking. 5. Humanitarian (= Humanist) Approach The representatives of this approach are Maslow, Rogers and Kohlberg. - Psycho-analysts opposed the point of view according to which a human being is a dangerous creature, and support the idea that humans represent a valuable creature, and that they were established on the basis of their precious nature (environment). - Requirements lies under the basis of behaviours (impulses). - An individual is an entity trying "to realize itself". - It emphasizes on the concepts of “perception and personality (design)" in some individuals. - The individual is singular and unique, it’s also valuable.

6. Neurobiological Approach The representative for this approach is James Hebb. - Conducts an examination of the behaviours by observing and discussing about the brain, the nervous system and the synapses bonds located between brain cells (neurons). DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Development It is a continuous and regular change undergone in individuals starting from the fecundation to the physical, mental, emotional and social aspects. Progression - Growth, maturation, being ready to participate, it is a product of the learning interactions. - No development without maturation and learning. Growth - Body increase only in terms of height, weight and volume. - It alters the physical properties of the individual. Maturation - It is a status characterized by the fact that individuals reached a level in which his body can completely accomplish the biological and genetic functions that can be expected from them, and this, without the effect of learning by the individual’s organs. - So, it is the fact that the organism itself reaches a position in which it can fulfill the expected behaviours, due to the individual’s age. - The maturation process has two dimensions called the "physical growth and cognitive development”. - Learning has no effect on maturation. Readiness - It means the fact that an individual is in period of readiness or prepared existence and is in the period in which he’s mentally, socially and physically ready to learn. - This includes an individual’s readiness, maturation, sensory characteristics (interests, attitudes), and the individual's prior learning about a specific subject and the general health status of the individual. Learning - It is the relatively permanent behavioural changes which is the result of the person’s interaction with his environment. - It is the permanent changes in an individual's behaviours due to his life experiences. Critical Period - It is the period, when according to someone’s age variation, it is appropriate for him to exhibit the behaviours he should learn. 1. Development is a product of the interaction of heredity and environment.

2. Development is continuous and takes place at certain stages. 3. Development continues alternately. 4. Development occurs from head to toe, and from inside to outside. 5. Development happens from the general to the specific. 6. There are critical periods in development. 7. Development is a whole. 8. There are individual differences in development. 9. Growth rate varies with time. *** Growth Factors 1. Inheritance 2- Environment 3 Parenting Styles in the Family 4- Division of the family 5- Children's Nativity Order 6- Time 1- Inheritance The features of an individual he/she received from the parents through the genes. 2- Environment - Prenatal - During birth - After birth 3- Parenting Styles in the family The love that will be shown to babies in the first year of their lives as well as the warm proximity plays an important role in building a sense of basic trust in them. 4- Division of the family Small children are more affected by such events and even holds themselves responsible of it. 5- Children's Nativity Order First children are highly motivated, ambitious, successful, and law-abiding, they expect to grow as individuals. 6- Time (= Historical Time) This section refers to the period of time when innovations and changes occur during the development. *** Hormones (Endocrine Glands) 1- Pituitary Gland It regulates the stability of the body's growth and the secretions of each and every other glands. 2- Thyroid It secretes Thyroxine. Thyroxine regulates the body's metabolism. The lack of Thyroxine leads to dwarfism and mental retardation. Its excess leads to numbness and chills. 3- Parathyroid It allows the body's calcium and phosphorus homeostasis. It’s the gland involved in the development of bones and muscles and which regulates the nervous system’s functioning. 4- Pancreas It secretes insulin. Insulin adjusts the amount of sugar in the blood. 5- Adrenal Glands Its secretions influences growth, libido and it helps protect the body from the intensity (overflowing) of emotions. It is closely related to emotional development. 6- Sexual Glands These glands provide sexual development in female and males subjects. *** Physical Development It is divided into five periods: 1- The Prenatal period 2- Infancy (0-2 years) 3- Childhood (2-6 years) 4- School Term (6-12 years) 5- Adolescence (12-18 years) 1- Prenatal period - When the fetus is born its height is between 48 cm and 53 cm. - The weight is between 2500-4300 g. - The heartbeats start in the third week. - Ossification begins at 4 months and movements in the womb are felt by the mother. - In the 5th month eyelids events occur with opening and closing of the eyes. - In the 5th month the hearing organs are also developed. 2- Infancy (0-2 years) - After the prenatal development, the period with the fastest physical development is the first year after birth. - At the end of year 1 a child measures 75 cm. -

At the end of year 1 he reaches 4 times the birth weight. - At birth, the head is bigger than the other organs. During infancy the head length is quarter of the body length, but in adulthood this length will only be up approximatively 1/8 of it. - A baby’s head need to grow 2-fold to reach its adult length, but the limbs (arms and legs) are supposed and should grow 6 times to reach their adult size. So the limbs grow faster than the head. - A baby's "muscle / body weight," ratio is lower than adults “muscle / body weight " ratio. - Head and neck muscles develop before the leg muscles, abdominal and shoulder muscles grow before arm and hand muscles. (From head to toe, from inside to outside) - Blood pressure begins to increase after the 6th week. Heartbeat is almost the double of the heartbeat rate of adults. - Nutrients in breast milk are digested by the digestive system. - A baby’s first behaviour after the birth is breathing. 3- Early Childhood (2-6 years) - During the period of 2-6 years the speed of physical development is reduced in comparison with age 0-2. - At the end of the 6th birthday the global body weight reaches seven times the one at birth. - The growth of the heart is rapid. Heartbeat rate gradually decreases and becomes similar to adults in the age of starting kindergarten (school). - The digestive system is now ready to digest all nutrients. - Kinetic (Psychomotor) Development: Activity is higher in the period of 2 to 6 years old. They simply can’t sit in one place for a long time. 4- School Term (6-12 years) - In the years of primary school, the physical development shows a slow progress compared to the first years. - Up to 9 years of age, boys are taller and heavier than girls. In the period starting from 10-year-old up to 15 years old girls’ weight and height overpass boys’. 5- Adolescence (12-18 years) - Adolescence starts with the end of puberty. Pre-puberty is a period of rapid physical, cognitive and psychological development. Adolescence is a period of adaptation to the changes occurring in pre-adolescence. -

In puberty, the sexual glands become active and begin secreting sex hormones. These hormones are called testosterone in men and estrogen in girls. - Although all individuals follow the same order in all the stages and events of adolescence, timing can vary greatly from an individual to another. On average, girls enter puberty 1.5-2 years before boys. - Adolescence lasts approximately 6 years. Girls enter puberty around age 11, boys enter puberty around the age of 13. Increase in size of girls is observed around age 11, it slows down towards 15 years of age. Testicles and penis development in men starts at 12-13 of age, the boom in height growth is seen at 14-15 of age. - First, the hands and feet grow, then the arms and legs, then the whole body. In men, there is an increase in muscular tissues for men an in adipose tissues for girls. *** Piaget’s Cognitive Development - According to Piaget, children are not passive recipients of the world. They play an active role in gaining knowledge. - Piaget’s cognitive development is explained by biological principles. Development is the result of the interaction of heredity and environment. Factors Affecting The Cognitive Development According to Piaget 1- Maturation 2- Experiences 3- Matting 4- Compliance 5- Balancing 6- Social Transition Basic Concepts of Development 1. Intelligence: the ability to adapt to the environment. 2. Scheme: A child, while perceiving the outside world, creates a unique sense of form and shape specific to him. This is called scheme. 3. Compliance: It is the fact that an individual by interfering with environment, adapts to changes in his environment and surroundings. 4. Matting (Edition): The creation of a new scheme or the modification of the scope of the previous schemes. 5. Balancing: Assimilation and would balance the interaction process in- compatible with each other. Cognitive Development Stages - The sensorimotor stage, (0-2 years) -

The preoperational stage, (2-7 years) - The concrete operational stage, (7-11 years) - The formal operational stage (age 11+) Rules of the Developmental Stages 1. Phases are revealed invariably in a certain order. 2- Mental developmental stages are hierarchical. 3. Some individual differences occur in growth rates. Each individual shows a personal growth. 4. Each universe has its typical development. Cognitive Development according to Vygotsky L. Vygotsky suggested that, the "social environment" in which a child is, plays an important role in that children's cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, all psychological processes between people, often begins with social processes shared between children and adults. In many cases, adults control, the thinking and problem solving activities of their children while they are instructors or simply teaching them something. However, this control should ensure that children internalize what they have learned, should make them independent thinkers and problem solvers. Language Development Language development is a part of cognitive development. It is considered to occur in parallel with mental development. Personality Development The personality has two dimensions: 1. Features distinguishing a person from others.

2. The changes in behaviours are supposed to be continuous. Freud's Psychosexual Development Concept (Psychoanalytic Theory) Freud emphasizes on the importance of life experiences in the early childhood years in terms of personality development (0-6 years). He suggested psychoanalysis which is one of the most influential concepts in psychology. According to this theory, in order to ensure a normal development, an individual’s basic needs must be satisfied in each stage of his development. If a person does not fulfil his basic needs this will block the development of his personality. Kohlberg's Moral Development Kohlberg’s moral development has been divided into three periods. And each level is also divided into two within itself. a) Pre-conventional level b) Conventional levels c) Post

-conventional level Self-Development or Development of personality Rogers and The theory of personality - Rogers, focused on an individual interest in the therapeutic learning theories, based on the skills and abilities to be trained in a free environment. - Rogers explained human approach with the concept of phenomenology. Individuals should not only the external world, but also understand the inner world. So it keeps an individual's inner world is at the forefront of the analysis.